Revista Minerva is the journal of the University of El Salvador (UES), under the Academic Vice Rectory and managed by the Secretariat of Scientific Research of the University of El Salvador (SIC-UES); it is the organ of dissemination of research results in all areas of knowledge. The journal is available to researchers from UES and other national or foreign institutions who wish to publish original and unpublished scientific articles, it is free and open access to readers.
Secretaría de Investigaciones Científicas de la Universidad de El Salvador
Report of Anisopteromalus quinarius (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) Gokhman & Baur, 2014, for El Salvador
This report aims to show that, despite El Salvador’s small size, it is possible to find species that have not been reported or are unknown to science. Therefore, this country is worthy of consideration for research on its fauna and flora, whether agricultural pests or beneficial organisms. A parasitoid species of Lasioderma serricorne (Coleoptera: Anobiidae) is reported for El Salvador, found by chance in a bag of nixtamalized flour infested with L. serricorne, which was placed inside a mesh cage to recover adults of that species during the 2020 pandemic in a residential area in the municipality of Mejicanos, San Salvador, at 700 m above sea level. The parasitoid was identified using keys for the genera of Pteromalidae and a key for the species; however, a specialist was consulted, who corroborated the validity of the identification, facilitating the detection of A. quinarius.
Copyright (c) 2025 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding oral health in the Salvadoran population
Objective: To evaluate knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to oral health among the Salvadoran population. Materials and methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional study was conducted in public health centers, churches, NGOs, and other settings using a questionnaire with a total of 15 questions on knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to oral health. Results: A total of 1,150 Salvadorans aged 18 to over 60 were surveyed, of whom 92.34 % had knowledge about dental caries, 90.7 % knew that dental floss is used to clean between teeth, and 54.4 % responded that fluoride protects teeth. In terms of attitudes, 96.35 % responded that it is important to visit the dentist, 75.13 % consider dental hygiene important, and 77.3 % responded that it is important to take care of one’s teeth in order to have good overall dental health. Among practices, 49.04 % brush their teeth three times a day. A high percentage of respondents do not use mouthwash (44.26 %) or dental floss (43.91 %). 86.7 % report eating between meals. Conclusion: The knowledge and attitudes of the Salvadoran population regarding oral health can be considered good; however, practices do not reflect this, so there is a need to educate patients about oral health problems and preventive oral health methods
Survival, growth, and yield of chia (Salvia hispanica), red bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in an aquaponics system
Aquaponics is a technology that integrates hydroponic agriculture and aquaculture for the purpose of producing food. In Guatemala, information has been generated on the survival and production of some plant species in aquaponic systems. However, the survival, growth, and productivity of a combined chia and red bean crop with tilapia farming is unknown or has not been evaluated. In this regard, an NFT aquaponics model was designed with 40 chia (Salvia hispanica) and red bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) plants and 25 tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Data on the bean plants were collected in seven samples, and in the case of chia, this was extended to eight samples every fifteen days over a period of 120 days. The chia and bean plants adapted, grew, and produced in the aquaponic system. In the case of chia plants, a survival rate of 80% and a height of X = 87.9 cm ± 38.19 were obtained, and for red bean plants, the survival rate was 85% with a height of X = 59.7 cm ± 11.5. The average seed production of chia was 3.1 g ± 2.0 and that of red beans was 23.4 g ± 16.3 per plant. Tilapia grew in the aquaponic system. An average weight of 61.6 g ± 29.2 and a survival rate of 72% were obtained. It is concluded that the combination of chia, red beans, and tilapia represents an interesting option for products in the Guatemalan agricultural sector.
This study examines a nationwide sports and social program in El Salvador, Central America, as a key model for fulfilling the state’s responsibilities toward children and adolescents. Specifically, it evaluates how the state ensures the fundamental rights established in legislation such as the Crecer Juntos Law, the Family Code, the General Sports Law, the Constitution of the Republic, the General Youth Law, the Municipal Code, and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, among other national and international regulations. The analysis focuses on the “LaLiga, Values and Opportunity” program, considered a benchmark for evaluating the impact of such initiatives on promoting the rights of children and adolescents. The execution, design, and planning of the program are discussed from a human rights perspective, highlighting its potential to become a social policy addressing the needs of young populations. The results suggest that while the program holds significant potential to positively influence the protection of rights, adjustments to its structure are needed to maximize its effectiveness. The study concludes that sports and social programs like this can serve as viable tools for strengthening social policy in contexts of inequality and social vulnerability.
The economic development promoted by the liberals at the end of the 19th century had its crisis in the region at the end of the 1920s. The way to maintain their power was to establish alliances with the military, which led to the period of dictatorships, which is why, from 1930 to 1979, they played an important role in politics. The exception in Central America was Costa Rica, which, making an alliance with the business and political elites, built a modern nation project, greatly influenced by the form of government built in 1934 in Mexico. Therefore, the objective of this article is to study the process of military dictatorships and the ideas of modernization in the region, which was linked to the implementation of a military theory to control the various groups in society and the influence of the Mexican Revolution in the region by dividing large properties to avoid conflicts over land. Having said the above, the following question is asked: What was the political objective of implementing dictatorships in Central America?
Shear Wave Bidimensional Elastography and UGAP, new technologies in Venezuela for the quantification of the degree of fibrosis and fat in the liver
Two-dimensional Supersonic Shear Wave Elastography (2D-SWE SSI) is a diagnostic technique that uses a stateof- the-art ultrasound scanner that can qualitatively (using a color scale) and quantitatively (in kilopascals or meters/ second) assess the stiffness of different tissues. This technology is combined with UGAP (Ultrasound Guided Attenuation Parameter), an index used to accurately assess the level of hepatic steatosis (fatty liver). This combination is a non-invasive tool that uses ultrasound to determine the attenuation of its waves as they pass through the liver. The fat accumulated in the liver influences the acoustic properties of liver tissue, producing greater attenuation of ultrasound waves the greater the problem. This technology measures and assesses the amount of fat present in the liver and is vitally important after treatment to measure (quantify) the patient’s progress or response to appropriate and timely treatment
Determination of heavy metal contamination in surface and deep water samples from Lake Ilopango, El Salvador
This article describes the results of evaluating the concentrations of heavy metals such as Lead, Arsenic and Chromium, in water samples extracted from different points of Ilopango lake, on the surface and at a depth of 20 m, and comparing them with reference standards for water, in order to determine the degree of contamination present in the collected samples. It is an initial monitoring that will establish the possibility of making its water adequate for human consumption and other uses. The results were obtained through the application of the Total Reflection X-ray Fluorescence (TXRF) technique, which allows to quantify elemental concentrations with a sensitivity of less than one part per million in optimal cases, and a maximum error of 10 % in determining concentrations. In addition, the gradient of the concentrations of heavy metals as Cr, As and Pb present in the lake, was geographically determined, applying QGIS and the first neighbor’s method. The initial results indicate a strong contamination by Arsenic and Lead, up to 27 and 38 times higher, respectively, than the limit established in the guide value of the code, in addition to some physical-chemical parameters outside of acceptable limits, so that the purification of lake water with conventional methods is not recommended.
Agricultural public policies and their impact on local development in Campozano parish
The objective of the research was to propose a methodology to evaluate agricultural public policies in the Campozano parish, Manabí Province Ecuador, contributing to local development. The research, with a descriptive approach, characterized the processes and structures related to territorial management and agricultural policies. The results indicated that, despite being aligned with the National Development Plan, the policies presented deficiencies in their execution, especially in the coverage of goals and local participation. The indicators showed an 88.89% progress in soil conservation, 66.67% in production and road connectivity, and 80% in organizational policies. It was concluded that the lack of coordination and community participation limited the effectiveness of the policies. It was recommended to implement a monitoring system, promote citizen participation and develop a strategic plan to improve the competitiveness of Campozano and its alignment with national objectives
Natural radioactivity in various types of environmental and drinking waters in El Salvador
Drinking water quality is a topic of concern for the population, and the presence of radioactive contaminants is considered a health risk. The objective of this study was to measure the concentrations of radon gas (222Rn) and radium (226Ra) in drinking and environmental waters and compare them with the radiological parameters outlined in Salvadoran technical regulations for water for human consumption, as well as international regulations. The aim was to contribute to the radiological monitoring of drinking water and various types of environmental waters that could be used for purification. Samples were collected and analyzed intermittently between 2016 and 2019, and again from 2021 to 2022 in different parts of the country. Liquid scintillation counting was applied for analysis, using the standardized method ASTM D5072-09 for radon-222 and the IAEA ARCAL LXXIX method for radium-226. All results showed the presence of radon-222 in different concentrations ranging from 0.91 ± 0.09 to 60.16 ± 2.0 Bq/L. However, the presence of radium-226 could not be determined at concentrations higher than the method’s detection limit (0.045 Bq/L). At the monitoring sites, variation in radon concentrations that can be attributed to recurrent seismic events in the region was observed, and this study shows a correlation between seismic events and increases in radon concentrations on specific dates. This study’s conclusions suggest the need to continue and expand radiological monitoring of radon and radium to other areas, considering that the country is influenced by seismic and volcanic activity
the Revista Minerva adopts the continuous publication model
The Revista Minerva will switch to continuous publication. This model will allow manuscripts to be published once they have completed the editorial process, without waiting for the issue to be completed. It will be implemented starting in the second half of 2025, and the biannual frequency will be maintained.
TECHNICAL GUIDE TO RADIOLOGICAL PROTOCOLS FOR THE DETECTION OF BREAST PATHOLOGIES
Dedicated to all students and professionals in Radiology and Imaging of the University of El Salvador, may this document be useful in professional practice and thus move together towards a future that allows the timely detection of breast pathologies. The existence of breast pathologies, and the importance of exploring their nature, has transcended over the years the need for early detection of breast cancer. The diagnosis to determine the existence of breast cancer has changed radically. Specialized studies in morphology and structure of the breast have given rise to mammography, a study that today remains an effective method for early detection of breast cancer. In the country, hospitals that perform mammographic studies have introduced new technologies for breast diagnosis, which is why among the most recent advances is the entry of digital mammography with the ability to perform various procedures such as tomosynthesis, mammography-guided biopsies, among others. This technical guide is the result of the research of the graduate seminar; work focused on mammography that proposes effective radiological protocols in the detection of mammary pathologies, taking as a reference point those mammographic studies and procedures that are currently performed at the Hospital Materno Infantil Primero de Mayo of the Instituto Salvadoreño del Seguro Social (Salvadoran Social Security Institute). The technical guide contains protocols and projections, which are performed in the mammography area for the diagnosis of breast pathologies with their respective radiological criticism. The protocols are divided into routine projections and additional projections, also, specialized mammographic studies and procedures are described with their respective particularities, including the types of biopsies and the description of steps to follow to perform the study or procedure from the participation of the radiology professional. It also describes the radiological terminology, professional ethics, radiological protection and the most frequent pathologies of the mammary glands, in order to strengthen all the basic aspects necessary for a good diagnosis in the area of mammography.
Contributions of the University of El Salvador to the country’s development
Introduction: this document provides a brief outline of the contribution of the University of El Salvador to social and productive development in the history of the country. The importance and originality of this work lies in bringing to light some of the contributions of the UES in different areas, particularly its performance in professional and scientific training, and in the democratization processes of the country; but it also brings to light its main current challenges. Objective: to make visible part of the contributions made by the University of El Salvador for the benefit of Salvadoran society. Methodology: an exploratory and descriptive study based on the review of documents in the public domain. Results: In its origins, the University of El Salvador was the institution where the country’s ruling class was educated, and throughout its history it has contributed from professional training to the processes of social change; accompanying movements for democracy and in the constant search for academic quality in terms of various social problems. Conclusions: Throughout its history, the University of El Salvador has played a central role in the development of the country, because from professional training, research and scientific innovation with a social approach, it is linked to the solution of problems in different areas of the Salvadoran reality, emphasizing its special contribution to democratic life and the development of the country.
Comprehensive analysis of forced child pregnancy in El Salvador
This essay recognizes the problem of pregnancy in adolescents under 15 years of age, related to sexual abuse and violence, from different perspectives: anthropological, preconceptional risk, clinical-epidemiological behavior, teachers’ perceptions and public policies. The insufficient attention to sexual and reproductive health in educational environments is highlighted, revealing a frequently ignored problem. The analysis of anthropological conditions and preconception risk shows a lack of knowledge about sexuality and contraception among adolescents, exposing them to sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancies. Exposure to sexual violence, especially in girls under 15 years of age, is associated with serious physical and psychological consequences, increasing preconception risk. At the clinical-epidemiological level, there is a high frequency of complications during pregnancy and childbirth, affecting maternal and neonatal health, as well as educational and employment opportunities. The perceptions of teachers indicate a lack of specific data on their perspective on forced child pregnancy, highlighting the need to improve educational strategies and establish effective communication channels between social actors involved. In terms of public policies, the importance of the Protocol for School Permanence of Pregnant Girls and Adolescents and the need for continuous evaluations to ensure its effective implementation are emphasized. The conclusions underline the importance of synergies between educational quality, prevention of early pregnancy and promotion of gender equality, highlighting the need for effective responses from the education sector together with other actors to address adolescent pregnancy by strengthening educational policies, teacher training and intersectoral partnerships
Prevalence of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in health students, El Salvador
Tuberculosis is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which is distributed worldwide and has a rate of 32.3 per 100,000 inhabitants in El Salvador. Health personnel and in particular the person in the process of training when starting their clinical practice increases their exposure. Latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI), that is, the state of persistent immune response to stimulation by Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens, which is not accompanied by clinical manifestations of active tuberculosis, is detected through the tuberculin skin test or Mantoux test, a method to determine whether a person is infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in health´s area students, through the tuberculin test. The population under study were the students medicine of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of El Salvador. A sample of 140 randomly selected students was considered as a sample. The results showed that, of 118 under 30 years of age, a prevalence of 22.03% was obtained for the tuberculin test (PPD), 50% of the had a PPD of zero mm; it is evident that there is no tuberculin test for tuberculin. It is evidente that there is no significant difference between both sexes. In conclusion, the results of the research suggest that PPD-positive may have latent tuberculosis infection and PPD-negative, may represent an important longitudinal research that shows occupational risks when entering hospital internships.
Configurations of power in the university community of the School of Medicine. An ethnographic study
The research is referred to the study of the daily social phenomenon named power relations that are configured among the groups of people of the university community of the University of El Salvador in the School of Medicine. The objective is to analyze the instrumental modalities of the effect of the word, disparities or economic differences between members, control mechanisms and the forms of institutionalization for the exercise of power, namely traditions, customs, fashions, regulations and hierarchical structures. The use of the ethnographic method that, through field notes and participant observation, was able to produce the analysis of the actors of the university community (students, teachers and administrative staff) and the power relations between them and their peers. The results establish antagonistic relationships between members of the university community and between students, both symbolic and factual. It can be clearly identified in the study the indispensable elements for the exercise of power relations, first that there is a recognized subject over whom power is exercised and second that this is maintained until the end as a subject of action that assumes the relationship of institutionalized power. The exercise of the described power concludes on the training for the formation of disciplined, obedient but severe and individualistic professionals, it will be necessary to ask how much of these features are maintained and how much of them are maintained until the end.
History of occupational therapy in El Salvador
Introduction: The understanding of the professional identity of the Salvadoran Occupational Therapy professional constitutes a good reason to conduct a study on the emergence and evolution of Occupational Therapy in El Salvador, in this study we describe the background, development and current status; making a journey from the pioneers in the beginning of the discipline, the beginnings of the training of professionals in this discipline, until the conformation of the professional association; contextualizing with some of the historical and social processes that made possible and boosted the development of the profession. Objective: To make an approach to the historical context that has defined the professional identity of the Salvadoran occupational therapist. Methods: The historical method, documentary analysis and in-depth interview were used. Results: the main historical facts that determined the development and identity of Occupational Therapy professionals in El Salvador are shown, as well as their fields and areas of action. Conclusion: The current need to promote training and specialization in the discipline, regulate professional practice and improve integration among occupational therapists is identified
Perceptions, Beliefs and Practices Surrounding the Diagnosis and Treatments of People with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder of multiple etiologies, characterized by chronic hyperglycemia with disturbances in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins as a result of defects in the secretion and/or action of insulin. A case study was conducted in the Salvadoran Diabetes Association ASADI, with the objective of describing the perceptions, beliefs and practices surrounding the diagnosis and treatment of people with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Method: it consisted of a descriptive qualitative approach, a sample was selected by convenience, two focus groups were conducted with seven and eight people, men and women between 35 and 75 years old, with more than one year of belonging to the association and suffering from the disease, being patients under medical control, participating in the therapeutic group and residing in San Salvador. A guide of questions was administered to the focal groups and to the patients’ caregivers, semistructured interviews with the specialist physician and the diabetes educator. Informed consent was requested from ASADI and the people participating in the interviews. The data were entered in a code book and analyzed for each specific objective of the research. It is concluded that unfavorable perceptions, beliefs and practices are reduced with education, and education helps to have a longer and calmer life that also promotes self-care and improves health. Key words: Diabetes Mellitus, support group, beliefs, practices, El Salvador
Evaluation of the relationship between the cycle threshold (Ct) of RTqPCR and COVID-19 clinical symptoms in outpatients
The gold standard diagnosis (GSDP) for COVID-19 is amplification of viral RNA by retrotranscription and realtime polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), using a nasopharyngeal swab sample (NPS), processed with a traditional RNA extraction. Regarding the sample, some substitutions have been used in the diagnostic process, such as saliva and nasopharyngeal secretion samples with auto collection without the need to use a swab to reduce the time and cost of these tests and mainly to reduce the biological risk of health personnel. The data used in RT-qPCR for its positivity or negativity is the value of the threshold cycle (Ct), and according to some studies this data can provide an important tool as a prognostic value in the clinical epidemiological context of the patient, influencing the therapeutic decision making of health personnel, with a possible positive impact on the clinical evolution of patients; however, several of the published studies show low or in some cases no significant relationship between the Ct value and the clinical evolution of the patient. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship between RTqPCR cycling threshold (Ct) and clinical COVID-19 in outpatients. METHODOLOGY: 479 samples from patients who met the inclusion criteria were processed, amplification was performed by two already standardized RT-qPCR protocols of SARS CoV2 E and RdRp genes, 4 positive samples were sequenced by NGS for diagnostic confirmation. Factors related (signs and symptoms) to SARS-CoV-2 viral load were evaluated. Viral load was determined based on RT-qPCR reaction and threshold value (CT). Two groups were stratified; high viral load (Ct<30) and low viral load (Ct>30). The data were recorded in an excel spreadsheet and subsequently analyzed with the statistical software R 4.4.1. from Project for Statistical Computing. Values of p≤0.05 were considered significant, the strength of the association was measured with the Odds Ratio and its confidence intervals (95% CI). RESULTS: Of 479 samples processed, 87 samples were positive, the highest severity(N:3) and lethality(N:1) variables clustered in Ct< 30, only one severe patient clustered in Ct>30. The rest (N:84) without mortality or severity clustered similarly in both groups Ct<30 and Ct>30, in all cases with a weak or no relationship significance with respect to the Ct threshold (p ≥ 0.05). Similarly, no significant impact of the vaccine on the Ct value was observed. CONCLUSION: The usefulness of Ct as a predictor of severity of COVID-19 and for other respiratory viral infections should be subjected to more rigorous studies, meanwhile given the available information and the results of the present study confirm that the usefulness of the Ct threshold in the clinical prognosis of COVID-19 patients is accompanied by certain limitations. In any case, if the Ct value is used as a prognostic factor in COVID-19 patients, it should be done with caution and awareness of the limitations
Cryptococcus neoformans in the Rosales National Hospital of El Salvador
Cryptococcosis, an opportunistic mycosis caused by a capsulated yeast: Cryptococcus neoformans, which is taxonomically classified within the kingdom fungi, phylum Basidiomycota, family Filobasidiella. The microorganism was isolated from feces and nests of Columba livia, pigeons. The excreta of these species constitute the ideal habitat for the microorganism because they contain the organic substances necessary for the viability and growth of the fungus. The Rosales National Hospital (HNR), the main hospital in San Salvador and in the country, has a large population of pigeons. The objective of this research was to prove the existence of Cryptococcus neoformans in the feces of pigeons living in the HNR facilities. Method: cultures were made from pigeon droppings from the floor and remains of nests found in the facilities; sowing was performed in sunflower seed agar and from the growth, fresh preparations and urease test were made for identification. The results show the presence of Cryptococcus neoformans in the HNR facilities, and it is also concluded that, regardless of the origin of the environmental samples, there is an equal possibility of recovering the fungus even if they are dry or fresh (wet) excreta, which constitutes a risk factor of infection for immunosuppressed hospitalized patients and the general population that works or visits the HNR. If the condition of immunosuppression, whether due to disease or iatrogenic, is added to the inhalation of fungal spores, it becomes a public health problem to be solved
Health and living conditions in Colonia El Transito, Cuscatancingo
Study conducted in the El Transito neighborhood, Cuscatancingo, San Salvador. The objective was to determine the level of living conditions and health of its inhabitants, 42 men and 110 women were registered in 152 homes out of a total of 290; the researchers carried out this study with the help of students from the Basic Sciences Unit of the School of Medicine, in accordance with the curricular requirements of the level, in the community activity. Methodologically, it is a quantitative and descriptive study, and a community visit was made in a single event to all the houses in the neighborhood. Data related to material living conditions were collected and the WHOQOL-BREF instrument was used to determine the level of living and health conditions. Slight modifications were made to the internationally validated instrument in order to use words or terms commonly used by the population. The results show a resilient attitude towards their material life situation, by improving their living and health conditions, successfully consolidating their adaptive strategy. According to the categorical scale of the instrument used, a result of 3.05 is equivalent to normality. The psychic dimensions and social relations cultivated make them reach this “normality”. It is concluded that the management for the improvement of the garbage collection service, the improvement of the neighborhood’s ornamentation and more careful algological treatment strategies for the residents with chronic diseases of old age, would substantially improve the health and living conditions of the residents of the El Transito neighborhood.
Study of the impact of thermal treatment on Energy Performance Indicators (EPI) in municipal buildings
This paper addresses the improvement of Energy Performance Indicators (EnPI) in municipal buildings in El Salvador. It describes the comparison between current EnPIs and projected ones, analyzing energy consumption and emissions in relation to building area and personnel. Average figures and graphs illustrating the evolution of annual EnPIs of energy consumed per area and per person in different municipalities are presented. Additionally, proposed measures to reduce energy consumption and improve energy management in municipal buildings are highlighted, focusing on updating lighting systems, optimizing equipment, smart energy management, and thermal insulation. These actions are based on internationally recognized standards such as ISO 50000, ensuring alignment with effective practices to promote energy efficiency and reduction carbon emission.
Study of air quality in the metropolitan area and its status with respect to Central American indices in the area of University of El Salvador
This project is a continuation of the fabrication of a low-cost air quality meter. For this purpose, modifications were made such as the incorporation of GPS to cover different areas of San Salvador, data storage through micro SD memory, screen for user interaction with the data being generated at the moment, incorporation of button panels with different functions, LED’s indicators for better user interaction and the incorporation of new variables. The meter currently measures values of particulate matter of 1.0 μm, 2.5 μm, 10 μm, temperature, humidity, formaldehyde, date, time, latitude, longitude, height above sea level, satellite time, number of satellites tracked, horizontal position dilution, ICCA index and air quality 2.5 and 10 (18 variables). To this, uncertainty values and sampling time are added (25 data in total). The pollutants measured are found in the ambient air by human activity or natural processes, population growth, vehicular increase, agricultural burning and solid waste, so from the collection of these data it is possible to obtain a geographic information system GIS (for its acronym in English) that allows to present a new perspective from the way in which it is interpreted and understood about this issue and influence decision making. This study focuses on the area of the capital of El Salvador, San Salvador, in the area of University of El Salvador, due to this location is central and highly populated area
Radial coverage study for the implementation of a sensor network with long range radio technology (LoRa)
Long Range (LoRa) technology, through the LoRaWAN protocol, allows efficient transmission of data over long distances with minimal resources, thus operating for a longer time. This technology is used mostly for monitoring and can be used in a large number of areas ranging from meteorology to medical applications. A coverage study was carried out in some sectors of the University of El Salvador between the months of November and December, where it sought to establish a methodology to predict the level of reception in various geographical conditions within it. To do this, various resources were used such as simulation software, mathematical models, field measurements with the Tektronix brand RSA306B spectrum analyzer and the TTGO LoRa 32 board, to determine its effectiveness under specific conditions. The data is tabulated, compared and the most appropriate tool is chosen according to the environment, which ranges from areas with a large presence of buildings to areas with dense vegetation.
Explanatory elements of the media treatment of femicides in El Salvador
Comparative literature has amply shown that the media’s treatment of an issue has the capacity to modulate the way in which public opinion perceives it. For this reason, numerous authors at the international level have analyzed the media’s treatment of gender violence and, in particular, of femicides. This article consists of a first qualitative approach to this phenomenon in El Salvador and describes the factors that influence the treatment of news of femicides by digital media in the country according to the journalists themselves. Specifically, interviews were conducted with 12 journalists from 7 media outlets and 2 experts in gender perspective. The results indicate that some elements that influence the way in which feminicidal violence is presented in the media are the types of journalistic approach, the presence of women with a gender perspective in positions of power and the training of journalists. The article concludes with a proposal of measures to be adopted to ensure a media treatment of violence from a gender perspective
Copyright (c) 2024 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Factors associated with the mortality of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) due to estreptococcosis produced by Sreptococcus agalactiae in aquaculture farms in the Atiocoyo Irrigation District, El Salvador
Fish diseases caused by bacteria or parasite infection are important problems hindering tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) culture. Streptococcosis, due to Streptococcus spp. infection, is one of the main cause of tilapia mortality in tilapia farms. The objective was to identify the factors associated with tilapia mortality due to Streptococcus agalactiae in artisan tilapia farms in the Atiocoyo irrigation district, El Salvador, during march – June, 2022. The presence of S. agalactiae was investigated in fish, water and feed of 28 culture ponds. The serotype of the infecting bacteria was also determined. The bacteria was present only in the fish and not detected in water or feed. PCR analysis indicated that the serotypes responsible for the streptococosis were 1a and III belonging to genes cps 1 aH y cps1a/2/31 in the Polysaccharide Capsule (CPS). Physicochemical pond water parameters were also evaluated. Results of these analyses revealed a relationship between the presence S. agalactiae and dissolved water oxygen, high water temperature and elevated levels of phosphate and ammonia.
University education is a process of interaction of various elements in a multi-dimensional unit, which contributes to the development of complex thinking. Because of this, it was decided to explore the manifestation of complex thinking based on the speeches of nutrition students at the University of El Salvador during the year 2022. The rhizomatic methodology was considered. As a result, a natural and recurrent manifestation of the principles was found systemic, autonomy-dependency and dialogic. Another important assessment is the need to teach knowledge: the human condition, the blindness of knowledge, earthly identity, uncertainty and understanding. In conclusion, there are inadequacies of the students in terms of being aware of the mechanisms that put these principles of complex thinking on the pedagogical scene, despite their semantic, systematic, and repetitive use.
Effectiveness of Bacillus subtilis Cohn (1872) and Trichoderma harzianum Rifai (1969) on Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (Sacc.) Snyder & Hansen, in tomato seeds (Solanum lycopersicum var. CENTA Cuscatlan)
Vascular wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici (Fol), decreases the production and quality of the tomato crop. Currently, biocontrol with Trichoderma harzianum (Th) and Bacillus subtilis (Bs) has great potential, since its capacity has been demonstrated for a long time to inhibit phytopathogens; on the other hand, biopriming is a tool that improves germination, vigor, homogeneous emergence and seedling development. The objective of this research was to determine the effectiveness of the commercial strains Bacillus subtilis and Trichoderma harzianum on a Fol isolate in tomato seeds var. CENTA CUSCATLAN at an in vitro and in vivo level. The behavior of the biocontrollers at two concentrations and with biopolymers to inhibit the in vitro growth of Fol, stimulate seed germination and the development of tomato plants was evaluated. The results demonstrated the antagonistic capacity of the biocontrollers. In the in vitro bioassay it was verified that T9 (Th 108 esp/ml-1 + Al) increased the number of germinated seeds, while in the in vivo assay T6 (Th 106 esp/ml-1 + Ga) stood out for having greater germination percentage, but T8 (Bs 108 esp/ml-1 + Ga) reduced the germination time. The phenological variables: root length, stem length, total length, fresh weight and dry weight were higher with T5 (Th 106 esp/ml-1 + Al), while T4 (Bs 106 esp/ml-1 + Ga) favored the increase in stem diameter. This study is an effort to contribute to the application of innovative technologies and biocontrol methods to develop a sustainable agricultural production system, strategic in the face of current climatic conditions; besides being the first investigation and report of Fol in El Salvador
Insect pests of Caribbean pine and their natural enemies at the La Yeguada Forest Reserve, Panamá
Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea) in Panama is an important forest resource; however, in the country there is little knowledge of its phytosanitary problems. This research was developed to identify the insect pests that cause damage in pine timber production and to know their natural enemies. The research was carried out in Caribbean pine plantations at Yeguada Forest Reserve, Panama. In the sawmills and surrounding areas, were carried out: wood damage sampling, setting Lindgren traps, breeding insects in emergency cages and sampling affected trees. For parasitoids, level of larval parasitoidism was estimated along the stem and statistically compared. Two types of damage were found in the sawn wood: perforations and blue staining. Perforations were caused by Xyleborus affinis and the blue spotting by a fungus associated with a beetle of the genus Ips. Ten insect species of natural enemies were found, nine of these are predators and one parasitoid. Among predators, two species of Epiphloeus and Nemozoma genera specialize in bark and ambrosia beetles. Roptrocerus xylophagorum was most abundant natural enemy, his parasitoidism levels on Ips sp. is 12.6%, frequent value for this parasitoid in Ips species. The distribution of the parasitoid along the stem was greater in the apical section, which is related to the greater presence of third-stage larvae in this sectio
Assessment of food safety culture in the manufacturing and processing of ready-to-eat foods, using a Salvadoran company as a case example
The culture of food safety encompasses values, beliefs, and norms that shape attitudes and behaviors towards food safety within organizations. Experts advocate for establishing this culture to enhance practices. In the absence of local research, this study evaluated food safety culture based on the Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) in a Ready-to-Eat Food industry (RTE) in El Salvador from November 2022 to May 2023. Using surveys, interviews, and observation, data were analyzed to validate results. The maturity of the culture was diagnosed, proposing an Action and Communication Plan to address identified gaps. The survey revealed that employees have a strong food safety culture. The highest compliance percentage for food safety within the total surveyed group (60 employees) was in the Awareness of Hazards and Risks dimension, at 89.1%, while the lowest percentage corresponded to the Adaptability dimension, at 80.9%. Interviews showed that employees can clearly identify experiences related to food safety in their area and are aware of the risks involved. It was determined that employees possess knowledge of food safety, which is evident in their behavior. However, there are areas for improvement. Communication is effective but should occur regularly and be accessible whenever needed. The maturity level of the company was approximately 3.5, according to the maturity model used, which corresponds to the KNOW level: individuals throughout the organization are knowledgeable about food safety and demonstrate that knowledge.
Monitoring of betalactams, tetracyclines and sulfonamides in ultrapasteurized fluid milk in Guatemala City
Antibiotic residues in pasteurized milk have been report in countries of the region. The demand of fluid milk is supplier with local and imported products. Due to the above, our purpose is to explore antibiotic residues in ultra-pasteurized milk in the metropolitan area of Guatemala. Beta-lactam, tetracycline, and sulfonamide antibiotics were screening using the rapid colloidal gold immunochromatographic technique with the MilkSafe™ 3BTS test. A total of 258 liters of milk at room temperature, offered to the public in 78 supermarkets, were used in this study. The availability of the eight brands varied by site at the time of sampling, causing differences in the quantities of units purchased. All samples (100 %) resulted in the absence of the MilkSafe™ 3BTS test residues. The possible reasons for obtaining results below the maximum residue limits (MRL) and the implications of these findings in the surveillance system for veterinary residues in milk for human consumption are discussing.